Shangdi was originally worshiped in ancient China, particularly during the Shang Dynasty (c. 1600–1046 BCE). The term “Shangdi” means “Supreme Deity” or “Emperor on High.” He was considered the highest deity in the pantheon, overseeing other gods, spirits, and ancestors. Shangdi was associated with the natural order, the cosmos, and the mandate of heaven, which justified the rule of emperors. Shangdi was understood to be the “greatest ancestor” of the human race by worshipers during this time.
Shang emperors proclaimed that Shangdi had made himself accessible through the souls of their royal ancestors [1], both in the legendary past and in recent generations as the departed Shang kings joined him in the afterlife. Originally it was understood that the protection and justice of Shangdi was connected to their familial order and was at the head of their governance (See Holy Order & part 2). The kings could thus successfully entreat Shangdi directly. Many of the oracle bone inscriptions record these written prayers, usually praying for rain but also seeking approval from Shangdi for governmental matters.
Modernly the name Shangdi is commonly used by contemporary Chinese (both mainland and overseas) and by religious and secular groups in East Asia, as a name of a singular universal deity and as a non-religious translation for God in Abrahamic religions. There is also an interesting phonetics similarity to the Sanskrit word for peace: Shanti (used in Hinduism & Buddhism).
Shangdi is also associated with the pole star. The Pole Star’s fixed position in the sky made it a symbol of stability and constancy. Shangdi, residing at this central point, was similarly seen as the source of order and stability in the universe.
The Big Dipper’s rotation around the Pole Star was symbolic of the bureaucratic hierarchy and the administrative order under Shangdi’s rule. In Chinese mythology, the Big Dipper was sometimes personified as a chariot or carriage of the Jade Emperor (a later personification of Shangdi). This imagery reinforced the idea of divine governance and the emperor’s role as Shangdi’s earthly representative.
And it came to pass, as they still went on and talked, that behold, there appeared a chariot of fire and horses of fire and parted them both asunder; and Elijah went up by a whirlwind into Heaven.
2 Kings 1:11 RE, 2 Kings 2:11-14 KJV
Dong Zhongshu, a Chinese philosopher, politician and writing during the Han dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE), said: “Shangdi is another name for Heaven [ “Tian”]. Heaven is the ultimate authority, the king of gods who should be admired by the king”. Although the translation is secular rather than King Jamesian, we believe that embedded in the meaning is an acknowledgment of the King of kings or King of Heaven.
During the Zhou Dynasty (c. 1046-256 BCE), the concept of Shangdi evolved into the notion of “Tian” (Heaven), which became central to the political and religious ideology. Tian represented a more impersonal, all-encompassing force compared to the more anthropomorphic Shangdi.
One of the most significant rituals (see ordinances) associated with Shangdi was the Border Sacrifice (郊祀, Jiāo Sì), performed by the emperor at the Temple of Heaven in Beijing. This ritual was conducted to honor Shangdi and ensure harmony between heaven and earth. It involved elaborate ceremonies, prayers, and offerings to Shangdi as the Supreme Deity.
Border Sacrifice:
The ceremony itself was highly structured, intended to and uphold the moral and cosmic order, and included several key components:
Procession: The emperor would lead a grand procession to the altar, often accompanied by music and elaborate regalia.
Offering: Sacrificial animals and other offerings were presented to Shangdi on the altar.
Prayers and Hymns: The emperor would offer prayers and recite hymns, seeking blessings and expressing gratitude.
Burning of Offerings: Some offerings were burnt, symbolizing their transfer to the divine realm.
Libation: Wine was poured as a libation, and ritual dances and music were performed.
Compare to the Passover Sacrifice (see 1 Corinthians 1:19 RE, 1 Cor. 5:6-8 KJV)
The Border Sacrifice was often performed during important seasonal transitions, such as the winter and summer solstices and the spring and autumn equinoxes. These times were seen as critical for ensuring the favor of heaven and the natural order. The primary observation for the Border Sacrifice was the winter solstice (December 21st or 22nd) to mark the rebirth of the sun and the beginning of the new solar year.
[1] Jeaneane D. Fowler, Merv Fowler, 2008, Chinese religions: beliefs and practices, Sussex Academic Press.
